http://greenpressnetwork.wordpress.com/2008/04/20/jejak-sejarah-hari-bumi/
Tiga puluh tahun yang lalu pada 22 April 1970, hari bumi untuk pertama kalinya diselenggarakan di Amerika Serikat, atas prakarsa seorang senator, . Embrio gagasan hari bumi dimulai sejak ia menyampaikan pidatonya di Seattle tahun 1969, tentang desakan untuk memasukkan isu-isu kontroversial, dalam hal ini lingkungan hidup, dalam kurikulum resmi perguruan tinggi mengikuti model “teach in” yaitu sessi kuliah tambahan yang membahas tema-tema kontroversial yang sedang hangat, khususnya tema lingkungan hidup. Ternyata masyarakat menyambut baik ide ini, sehingga gerakan lingkungan benar-benar semarak, dan timbul arus gerakan yang lebih besar dengan dicanangkannya Hari Bumi .
Dukungan ini terus membesar dan memuncak dengan menggelar peringatan Hari Bumi yang monumental. ketika jutaan orang turun ke jalan, berdemonstrasi dan memadati Fifth Avenue di New York dengan mengacungkan tinju kemarahan kepada para perusak bumi. Tidak kurang dari 1500 perguruan tinggi dan 10.000 sekolah berpartisipasi dalam unjuk rasa di New York, Washington dan San Fransisco. Majalah TIME memperkirakan bahwa sekitar 20 juta orang turun ke jalan pada 22 April 1970.
Nelson menyebutkan fenomena ini sebagai ledakan akar rumput yang sangat mencengangkan’ dimana : ” Masyarakat umum sungguh peduli dan Hari Bumi menjadi kesempatan pertama sehingga mereka benar-benar dapat berpartisipasi dalam suatu demonstrasi yang meluas secara nasional, dan dengan itu menyempaikan pesan yang serius dan mantap kepada para politisi untuk bangkit dan berbuat sesuatu “.
Menurut berbagai analisis ledakan ini muncul karena bergabungnya generasi pemrotes tahun 60-an (bagian terbesar adalah pelajar, mahasiswa, sarjana) yang terkenal sebagai motor gerakan anti-perang, pembela hak-hak sipil yang radikal. Sebuah perkawinan antara pemberontakan 60-an dan kesadaran lingkungan tahun 60-an.
Kesadaran terhadap lingkungan hidup pada masyarakat di Amerika Serikat mulai tergugah semenjak diterbitkannya buku “Silent Spring” karya Rachel Carson pada tahun 1962. Buku ini mengangkat seputar permasalahan lingkungan hidup yang sedang terjadi dan akan membahayakan manusia. Sejak beredarnya buku ini bermunculanlah berbagai kelompok yang bergerak dalam bidang pelestarian lingkungan hidup.
Hari Bumi yang pertama ini di Amerika Serikat merupakan klimaks perjuangan gerakan lingkungan hidup tahun 60-an untuk mendesak masuk isu lingkungan sebagai agenda tetap nasional. Kini peringatan Hari Bumi telah menjadi sebuah peristiwa global. Para pelaksana peringatan Hari Bumi menyatukan diri dalam jaringan global masyarakat sipil untuk Hari Bumi yakni EARTH DAY NETWORK yang berpusat di Seattle.
Puncaknya, yaitu saat kelompok-kelompok ini berhasil menggerakkan jutaan orang untuk turun ke jalan dalam pencanangan Hari Bumi pada 22 April 1970. Saat itu sebenarnya ada beberapa tema lain selain masalah penyelamatan lingkungan hidup, antara lain masalah anti perang Vietnam, masalah anti rasial, dan beberapa permasalahan sosial yang lain. Namun masyarakat Amerika saat itu lebih memfokuskan gerakan aksi besar-besaran ini pada tema lingkungan hidup yang dibawakan sebagai pesan terhadap kalangan politisi dan pemerintah untuk memperhatikan kebijakan-kebijakan yang berpihak pada kelestarian lingkungan hidup.
Dari keberhasilan gerakan Hari Bumi pertama kali pada tahun 1970 di Amerika, lahirlah berbagai kelompok besar pelestari lingkungan hidup, antara lain Environmental Action (di Washington, 1970), kelompok Greenpeace (kelompok pelestari lingkungan yang cukup radikal dan militan, lahir pada tahun 1971), Environmentalist for Full Employment (kelompok penentang industrialisasi, lahir tahun 1975), Worldwatch Institute (pusat penelitian dan studi yang mengumpulkan berbagai informasi ancaman lingkungan global, lahir tahun 1975), dan masih banyak lagi kelompok-kelompok pemerhati lingkungan yang lain.
Semenjak dicanangkannya Hari Bumi pada tahun 1970, kelompok-kelompok yang bergerak dalam bidang pelestarian lingkungan hidup di Amerika mengalami peningkatan jumlah anggota dengan sangat pesat, antara lain :(Kelompok) Audubon Society th 1962 : 41.000 orang th 1970 : 81.500Izaak Walton League th 1966 : 52.600 orang th 1970 : 53.600National Wildlife Federation th 1966 : 271.900 orang th 1970 : 540.000Sierra Club th 1959 : 20.000 orang th 1970 : 113.000Wilderness Society th 1964 : 27.000 orang th 1970 : 54.000
Namun lepas dari semua sejarah mengenai hari bumi, tidak terlalu penting. Yang paling penting adalah bagaimana umat manusia untuk tetap menjaga dan menyelamatkan bumi kita ini dari kehancuran .
Dan semua itu kita lakukan tidak hanya pada Hari Bumi saja, tetapi juga setiap saat.Sebagai informasi tambahan, peristiwa lain yang terjadi di 22 April, adalah:
* Tahun 1529: Perjanjian Saragosa ditandatangani, membagi belahan bumi timur antara Spanyol dan Portugal dengan batas garis bujur 17° sebelah timur Kepulauan Maluku.* Tahun 1578: Kerajaan Sumedang Larang berdiri sekaligus menandai berdirinya Sumedang.* Tahun 1724: Kelahiran Immanuel Kant, filsuf Jerman, wafat 1804.* Tahun 1870: Vladimir Illich Ulyanov, kelak dikenal sebagai Vladimir Lenin lahir di Simbirsk Rusia.
(Naskah dan foto diolah dari berbagai sumber /Marwan Azis-Greenpress)
22 April 2008
21 April 2008
Raden Ayu Kartini
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartini
Raden Ajeng (Adjeng) Kartini or, more accurately, Raden Ayu (Ajoe) Kartini, (April 21, 1879–September 17, 1904), was a prominent Javanese and an Indonesian national heroine. Kartini is known as a pioneer in the area of women's rights for native Indonesians.
Biography
Kartini was born into an aristocratic Javanese family in a time when Java was still part of the Dutch colony, the Dutch East Indies. Kartini's father, Raden Mas Sosroningrat, became Regency Chief of Jepara, and her mother was Raden Mas' first wife, but not the most important one. At this time, polygamy was a common practice among the nobility.
Kartini's father, RMAA Sosroningrat, was originally the district chief of Mayong. Her mother was MA Ngasirah, the daughter of Kyai Haji Madirono, a teacher of religion in Teluwakur, Jepara, and Nyai Haji Siti Aminah. At that time, colonial regulations specified that a Regency Chief must marry a member of the nobility and because MA Ngasirah was not of sufficiently high nobility[1], her father married a second time to Raden Ajeng Woerjan (Moerjam), a direct descendant of the Raja of Madura. After this second marriage, Kartini's father was elevated to Regency Chief of Jepara, replacing his second wife's own father, RAA Tjitrowikromo.
Kartini was the fifth child and eldest daughter in a family of eleven, including half siblings. She was born into a family with a strong intellectual tradition. Her grandfather, Pangeran Ario Tjondronegoro IV, became a Regency Chief at the age of 25 while Kartini's older brother Sosrokartono was an accomplished linguist.
Kartini's family allowed her to attend school until she was 12 years old. Here, among other subjects, she learnt to speak fluent Dutch, an unusual accomplishment for Javanese women at the time[2]. After she turned 12 she was 'secluded' at home, a common practice among Javanese nobility, to prepare young girls for their marriage. During seclusion girls were was not allowed to leave their parents' house until they were married, at which point authority over them was transferred to their husbands. Kartini's father was more lenient than some during his daughter's seclusion, giving her such privileges as embroidery lessons and occasional appearances in public for special events.
During her seclusion, Kartini continued to educate herself on her own. Because Kartini could speak Dutch, she acquired several Dutch pen friends. One of them, a girl by the name of Rosa Abendanon, became her very close friend. Books, newspapers and European magazines fed Kartini's interest in European feminist thinking, and fostered the desire to improve the conditions of indigenous women, who at that time had a very low social status.
Kartini's omnivorous reading included the Semarang newspaper De locomotief, edited by Pieter Brooshooft, as well as leestrommel, a set of magazines circulated by bookshops to subscribers. She also read cultural and scientific magazines as well as the Dutch women's magazine De Hollandsche Lelie, to which she began to send contributions which were published. From her letters, it was clear that Kartini read everything with a great deal of attention and thoughtfulness. The books she had read before she was 20 included Max Havelaar and Love Letters by Multatuli. She also read De Stille Kracht (The Hidden Force) by Louis Couperus, the works of Frederik van Eeden, Augusta de Witt, the Romantic-Feminist author Mrs Goekoop de-Jong Van Beek and an anti-war novel by Berta von Suttner, Die Waffen Nieder! (Lay Down Your Arms!). All were in Dutch.
Kartini's concerns were not just in the area of the emancipation of women, but also the problems of her society. Kartini saw that the struggle for women to obtain their freedom, autonomy and legal equality was just part of a wider movement.
Kartini's parents arranged her marriage to Raden Adipati Joyodiningrat, the Regency Chief of Rembang, who already had three wives. She was married on the 12 November 1903. This was against Kartini's wishes, but she acquiesced to appease her ailing father. Her husband understood Kartini's aims and allowed her to establish a school for women in the east porch of the Rembang Regency Office complex. Kartini's only son was born on September 13, 1904. A few days later on September 17, 1904, Kartini died at the age of 25. She was buried in Bulu Village, Rembang.
Inspired by Kartini's example, the Van Deventer family established the Kartini Foundation which built schools for women, 'Kartini's Schools' in Semarang in 1912, followed by other women's schools in Surabaya, Yogyakarta, Malang, Madiun, Cirebon and other areas.
In 1964, President Sukarno declared Kartini's birth date, 21 April, as 'Kartini Day' - an Indonesian National Holiday. This decision has been criticised. It has been proposed that Kartini's Day should be celebrated in conjunction with Indonesian Mothers Day, on 22 December so that the choice of Kartini as a national heroine would not overshadow other women who, unlike Kartini, took up arms to oppose the colonisers.
In contrast, those who recognise the significance of Kartini argue that not only was she a feminist who elevated the status of women in Indonesia, she was also a nationalist figure, with new ideas who struggled on behalf of her people, including her in the national struggle for independence.
Letters
After Kartini died, Mr JH Abendanon, the Minister for Culture, Religion and Industry in the East Indies, collected and published the letters that Kartini had sent to her friends in Europe. The book was titled Door Duisternis tot Licht (Out of Dark Comes Light) and was published in 1911. It went through five editions, with some additional letters included in the final edition, and was translated into English by Agnes L. Symmers and published under the title Letters of a Javanese Princess.
The publication of Kartini's letters, written by a native Javanese woman, attracted great interest in the Netherlands and Kartini's ideas began to change the way the Dutch viewed native women in Java. Her ideas also provided inspiration for prominent figures in the fight for Independence.
There are some grounds for doubting the veracity of Kartini's letters. There are allegations that Abendanon made up Kartini's letters. These suspicions arose because Kartini's book was published at a time when the Dutch Colonial Government were implementing 'Ethical Policies' in the Dutch East Indies, and Abendanon was one of the most prominent supporters of this policy. The current whereabouts of the vast majority of Kartini's letters is unknown. According to the late Sulastin Sutrisno, the Dutch Government has been unable to track down JH Abendanon's descendants.
Ideas
Condition of Indonesian women
In her letters, Kartini wrote about her views of the social conditions prevailing at that time, particularly the condition of native Indonesian women. The majority of her letters protest the tendency of Javanese Culture to impose obstacles for the development of women. She wanted women to have the freedom to learn and study. Kartini wrote of her ideas and ambitions, including Zelf-ontwikkeling, Zelf-onderricht, Zelf-vertrouwen, Zelf-werkzaamheid and Solidariteit. These ideas were all based on Religieusiteit, Wijsheid en Schoonheid, that is, belief in God, wisdom, and beauty, along with Humanitarianisme (humanitarianism) and Nationalisme (nationalism).
Kartini's letters also expressed her hopes for support from overseas. In her correspondence with Estell "Stella" Zeehandelaar, Kartini expressed her desire to be like a European youth. She depicted the sufferings of Javanese women fettered by tradition, unable to study, secluded, and who must be prepared to participate in polygamous marriages with men they don't know.
Religion
Kartini also expressed criticisms about religion. She questioned why the Quran must be memorised and recited without an obligation to actually understand it. She also expressed the view that the world would be more peaceful if there was no religion to provide reasons for disagreements, discord and offence. She wrote "Religion must guard us against committing sins, but more often, sins are committed in the name of religion"
Kartini also raised questions with the way in which religion provided a justification for men to pursue polygamy. For Kartini, the suffering of Javanese women reached a pinnacle when the world was reduced to the walls of their houses and they were prepared for a polygamous marriage.
Further studies and teaching
Kartini loved her father deeply although it is clear that her deep affection for him became yet another obstacle to the realisation of her ambitions. He was sufficiently progressive to allow his daughters schooling until the age of 12 but at that point the door to further schooling was firmly closed. In his letters, her father also expressed his affection for Kartini. Eventually, he gave permission for Kartini to study to become a teacher in Batavia (now Jakarta), although previously he had prevented her from continuing her studies in the Netherlands or entering medical school in Batavia.
Kartini's desire to continue her studies in Europe was also expressed in her letters. Several of her pen friends worked on her behalf to support Kartini in this endeavour. And when finally Kartini's ambition was thwarted, many of her friends expressed their disappointment. In the end her plans to study in the Netherlands were transmuted into plans to journey to Batavia on the advice of Mrs Abendanon that this would be best for Kartini and her younger sister, Rukmini.
Nevertheless, in 1903 at the age of 24, her plans to study to become a teacher in Batavia came to nothing. In a letter to Mrs Abendanon, Kartini wrote that the plan had been abandoned because she was going to be married... "In short, I no longer desire to take advantage of this opportunity, because I am to be married..". This was despite the fact that for its part, the Dutch Education Department had finally given permission for Kartini and Rukmini to study in Batavia.
As the wedding approached, Kartini's attitude towards Javanese traditional customs began to change. She became more tolerant. She began to feel that her marriage would bring good fortune for her ambition to develop a school for native women. In her letters, Kartini mentioned that not only did her esteemed husband support her desire to develop the woodcarving industry in Jepara and the school for native women, but she also mentioned that she was going to write a book. Sadly, this ambition was unrealised as a result of her premature death in 1904 at the age of 25.
References
1912, Raden Adj. Kartini, Door duisternis tot licht, with a foreword by J.H. Abendanon, The Hague
1920, Raden Adjeng Kartini, Letters of a Javanese princess, translated by Agnes Louise Symmers with a foreword by Louis Couperus, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 0-8191-4758-3 (1986 edition), ISBN 1-4179-5105-2 (2005 edition)
2000, F.G.P. Jaquet (red.), Kartini; Surat-surat kepada Ny. R.M. Abendanon-Mandri dan suaminya. 3rd edition. Jakarta: Djambatan, xxii + 603 pp.
1999, Elisabeth Keesing, Betapa besar pun sebuah sangkar; Hidup, suratan dan karya Kartini. Jakarta: Djambatan, v + 241 pp.
2004, J. Anten, Honderd(vijfentwintig) jaar Raden Adjeng Kartini; Een Indonesische nationale heldin in beeld, Nieuwsbrief Nederlands Fotogenootschap 43: 6-9.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartini
Raden Ajeng (Adjeng) Kartini or, more accurately, Raden Ayu (Ajoe) Kartini, (April 21, 1879–September 17, 1904), was a prominent Javanese and an Indonesian national heroine. Kartini is known as a pioneer in the area of women's rights for native Indonesians.
Biography
Kartini was born into an aristocratic Javanese family in a time when Java was still part of the Dutch colony, the Dutch East Indies. Kartini's father, Raden Mas Sosroningrat, became Regency Chief of Jepara, and her mother was Raden Mas' first wife, but not the most important one. At this time, polygamy was a common practice among the nobility.
Kartini's father, RMAA Sosroningrat, was originally the district chief of Mayong. Her mother was MA Ngasirah, the daughter of Kyai Haji Madirono, a teacher of religion in Teluwakur, Jepara, and Nyai Haji Siti Aminah. At that time, colonial regulations specified that a Regency Chief must marry a member of the nobility and because MA Ngasirah was not of sufficiently high nobility[1], her father married a second time to Raden Ajeng Woerjan (Moerjam), a direct descendant of the Raja of Madura. After this second marriage, Kartini's father was elevated to Regency Chief of Jepara, replacing his second wife's own father, RAA Tjitrowikromo.
Kartini was the fifth child and eldest daughter in a family of eleven, including half siblings. She was born into a family with a strong intellectual tradition. Her grandfather, Pangeran Ario Tjondronegoro IV, became a Regency Chief at the age of 25 while Kartini's older brother Sosrokartono was an accomplished linguist.
Kartini's family allowed her to attend school until she was 12 years old. Here, among other subjects, she learnt to speak fluent Dutch, an unusual accomplishment for Javanese women at the time[2]. After she turned 12 she was 'secluded' at home, a common practice among Javanese nobility, to prepare young girls for their marriage. During seclusion girls were was not allowed to leave their parents' house until they were married, at which point authority over them was transferred to their husbands. Kartini's father was more lenient than some during his daughter's seclusion, giving her such privileges as embroidery lessons and occasional appearances in public for special events.
During her seclusion, Kartini continued to educate herself on her own. Because Kartini could speak Dutch, she acquired several Dutch pen friends. One of them, a girl by the name of Rosa Abendanon, became her very close friend. Books, newspapers and European magazines fed Kartini's interest in European feminist thinking, and fostered the desire to improve the conditions of indigenous women, who at that time had a very low social status.
Kartini's omnivorous reading included the Semarang newspaper De locomotief, edited by Pieter Brooshooft, as well as leestrommel, a set of magazines circulated by bookshops to subscribers. She also read cultural and scientific magazines as well as the Dutch women's magazine De Hollandsche Lelie, to which she began to send contributions which were published. From her letters, it was clear that Kartini read everything with a great deal of attention and thoughtfulness. The books she had read before she was 20 included Max Havelaar and Love Letters by Multatuli. She also read De Stille Kracht (The Hidden Force) by Louis Couperus, the works of Frederik van Eeden, Augusta de Witt, the Romantic-Feminist author Mrs Goekoop de-Jong Van Beek and an anti-war novel by Berta von Suttner, Die Waffen Nieder! (Lay Down Your Arms!). All were in Dutch.
Kartini's concerns were not just in the area of the emancipation of women, but also the problems of her society. Kartini saw that the struggle for women to obtain their freedom, autonomy and legal equality was just part of a wider movement.
Kartini's parents arranged her marriage to Raden Adipati Joyodiningrat, the Regency Chief of Rembang, who already had three wives. She was married on the 12 November 1903. This was against Kartini's wishes, but she acquiesced to appease her ailing father. Her husband understood Kartini's aims and allowed her to establish a school for women in the east porch of the Rembang Regency Office complex. Kartini's only son was born on September 13, 1904. A few days later on September 17, 1904, Kartini died at the age of 25. She was buried in Bulu Village, Rembang.
Inspired by Kartini's example, the Van Deventer family established the Kartini Foundation which built schools for women, 'Kartini's Schools' in Semarang in 1912, followed by other women's schools in Surabaya, Yogyakarta, Malang, Madiun, Cirebon and other areas.
In 1964, President Sukarno declared Kartini's birth date, 21 April, as 'Kartini Day' - an Indonesian National Holiday. This decision has been criticised. It has been proposed that Kartini's Day should be celebrated in conjunction with Indonesian Mothers Day, on 22 December so that the choice of Kartini as a national heroine would not overshadow other women who, unlike Kartini, took up arms to oppose the colonisers.
In contrast, those who recognise the significance of Kartini argue that not only was she a feminist who elevated the status of women in Indonesia, she was also a nationalist figure, with new ideas who struggled on behalf of her people, including her in the national struggle for independence.
Letters
After Kartini died, Mr JH Abendanon, the Minister for Culture, Religion and Industry in the East Indies, collected and published the letters that Kartini had sent to her friends in Europe. The book was titled Door Duisternis tot Licht (Out of Dark Comes Light) and was published in 1911. It went through five editions, with some additional letters included in the final edition, and was translated into English by Agnes L. Symmers and published under the title Letters of a Javanese Princess.
The publication of Kartini's letters, written by a native Javanese woman, attracted great interest in the Netherlands and Kartini's ideas began to change the way the Dutch viewed native women in Java. Her ideas also provided inspiration for prominent figures in the fight for Independence.
There are some grounds for doubting the veracity of Kartini's letters. There are allegations that Abendanon made up Kartini's letters. These suspicions arose because Kartini's book was published at a time when the Dutch Colonial Government were implementing 'Ethical Policies' in the Dutch East Indies, and Abendanon was one of the most prominent supporters of this policy. The current whereabouts of the vast majority of Kartini's letters is unknown. According to the late Sulastin Sutrisno, the Dutch Government has been unable to track down JH Abendanon's descendants.
Ideas
Condition of Indonesian women
In her letters, Kartini wrote about her views of the social conditions prevailing at that time, particularly the condition of native Indonesian women. The majority of her letters protest the tendency of Javanese Culture to impose obstacles for the development of women. She wanted women to have the freedom to learn and study. Kartini wrote of her ideas and ambitions, including Zelf-ontwikkeling, Zelf-onderricht, Zelf-vertrouwen, Zelf-werkzaamheid and Solidariteit. These ideas were all based on Religieusiteit, Wijsheid en Schoonheid, that is, belief in God, wisdom, and beauty, along with Humanitarianisme (humanitarianism) and Nationalisme (nationalism).
Kartini's letters also expressed her hopes for support from overseas. In her correspondence with Estell "Stella" Zeehandelaar, Kartini expressed her desire to be like a European youth. She depicted the sufferings of Javanese women fettered by tradition, unable to study, secluded, and who must be prepared to participate in polygamous marriages with men they don't know.
Religion
Kartini also expressed criticisms about religion. She questioned why the Quran must be memorised and recited without an obligation to actually understand it. She also expressed the view that the world would be more peaceful if there was no religion to provide reasons for disagreements, discord and offence. She wrote "Religion must guard us against committing sins, but more often, sins are committed in the name of religion"
Kartini also raised questions with the way in which religion provided a justification for men to pursue polygamy. For Kartini, the suffering of Javanese women reached a pinnacle when the world was reduced to the walls of their houses and they were prepared for a polygamous marriage.
Further studies and teaching
Kartini loved her father deeply although it is clear that her deep affection for him became yet another obstacle to the realisation of her ambitions. He was sufficiently progressive to allow his daughters schooling until the age of 12 but at that point the door to further schooling was firmly closed. In his letters, her father also expressed his affection for Kartini. Eventually, he gave permission for Kartini to study to become a teacher in Batavia (now Jakarta), although previously he had prevented her from continuing her studies in the Netherlands or entering medical school in Batavia.
Kartini's desire to continue her studies in Europe was also expressed in her letters. Several of her pen friends worked on her behalf to support Kartini in this endeavour. And when finally Kartini's ambition was thwarted, many of her friends expressed their disappointment. In the end her plans to study in the Netherlands were transmuted into plans to journey to Batavia on the advice of Mrs Abendanon that this would be best for Kartini and her younger sister, Rukmini.
Nevertheless, in 1903 at the age of 24, her plans to study to become a teacher in Batavia came to nothing. In a letter to Mrs Abendanon, Kartini wrote that the plan had been abandoned because she was going to be married... "In short, I no longer desire to take advantage of this opportunity, because I am to be married..". This was despite the fact that for its part, the Dutch Education Department had finally given permission for Kartini and Rukmini to study in Batavia.
As the wedding approached, Kartini's attitude towards Javanese traditional customs began to change. She became more tolerant. She began to feel that her marriage would bring good fortune for her ambition to develop a school for native women. In her letters, Kartini mentioned that not only did her esteemed husband support her desire to develop the woodcarving industry in Jepara and the school for native women, but she also mentioned that she was going to write a book. Sadly, this ambition was unrealised as a result of her premature death in 1904 at the age of 25.
References
1912, Raden Adj. Kartini, Door duisternis tot licht, with a foreword by J.H. Abendanon, The Hague
1920, Raden Adjeng Kartini, Letters of a Javanese princess, translated by Agnes Louise Symmers with a foreword by Louis Couperus, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 0-8191-4758-3 (1986 edition), ISBN 1-4179-5105-2 (2005 edition)
2000, F.G.P. Jaquet (red.), Kartini; Surat-surat kepada Ny. R.M. Abendanon-Mandri dan suaminya. 3rd edition. Jakarta: Djambatan, xxii + 603 pp.
1999, Elisabeth Keesing, Betapa besar pun sebuah sangkar; Hidup, suratan dan karya Kartini. Jakarta: Djambatan, v + 241 pp.
2004, J. Anten, Honderd(vijfentwintig) jaar Raden Adjeng Kartini; Een Indonesische nationale heldin in beeld, Nieuwsbrief Nederlands Fotogenootschap 43: 6-9.
Religious toleration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThe cross of the war memorial and a menorah for Hanukkah coexist in Oxford. Religious toleration is the condition of accepting or permitting others' religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own.
In a country with a state religion, toleration means that the government permits religious practices of other sects besides the state religion, and does not persecute believers in other faiths. Historically, toleration has been a contentious issue within many religions as well as between one religion and another. At issue is not merely whether other faiths should be permitted, but also whether a ruler who is a believer may practice or permit tolerance. In the Middle Ages, toleration of Judaism was a contentious issue throughout Christendom. Today, there are concerns about toleration of Christianity in Islamic states (see also dhimmi).
Proselytism can be a contentious issue; it can be regarded as an offence against the validity of others' religions, or as an expression of one's own faith.
[edit] The element of objection
For individuals, religious toleration generally means an attitude of acceptance towards other people's religions. It does not mean that one views other religions as equally true; merely that others have the right to hold and practice their beliefs. This element of objection is important. People, who take these matters seriously, often experience distress when they are confronted with religious beliefs that they regard as idolatrous, superstitious, heretical or schismatic. Even in the western world, this is not only a historic issue, as in the Christian debate on persecution and toleration.
Contemporary authors such as Sam Harris, Richard Dawkins, Christopher Hitchens and Daniel C. Dennett have all written about the potential social hazards of allowing religious beliefs to go unchallenged. In The End of Faith, Sam Harris notes that we are unwilling, as a society, to tolerate unjustified beliefs in, for example, architecture. He asserts that we should be similarly unwilling to tolerate unjustified beliefs about morality, spirituality, politics, and the origin of humanity. In his preface to The God Delusion, Richard Dawkins says, "If this book works as I intend, religious readers who open it will be atheists when they put it down."[1]
[edit] Civil and ecclesiastical tolerance
Generally, when people speak of religious tolerance, the mean civil tolerance - "the policy of the state towards religious dissent".[2] In contrast to this, ecclesiastical tolerance is concerned with the degree of diversity tolerated within a particular church.[3]
[edit] Timeline
* 539 BC, Cyrus the Great issues a declaration of religious freedom; the first known recorded history of religious tolerance.[4]
* 364-332 BC, Ashoka the Great declares religious freedom in the Edicts of Ashoka
* 311 AD, The Roman Emperor Galerius issues a general edict of toleration in his own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine.[5]
* 313, The Edict of Milan issued by the Emperors Constantine I and Licinius proclaiming religious toleration in the Roman Empire.[6]
* 622, Muhammad declares religious freedom in the Constitution of Medina
* 1190, Genghis Khan composes his code of law, the Yassa, in which there is religious freedom for all who were under his rule.[citation needed]
* 1554, Castellio writes the pamphlet "De haereticis, an sint persequendi" (Whether heretics should be persecuted), the first modern appeal for toleration.[7]
* 1571 January 11 - Maximilian II declares religious toleration towards the nobles of Lower Austria, their families and workers;[8]
* 1573 January 28 - Warsaw Confederation granting religious toleration.[9]
* 1598 April 13 - King Henry IV of France issued the Edict of Nantes, allowing religious toleration of the Huguenots.[10]
* 1609 July 6 - Rudolph II grants religious toleration in Bohemia.[11]
* 1657 April 20 - New Amsterdam granted religious toleration to Jews;[citation needed]
* 1689, English Act of Toleration passed, granting toleration to Protestant dissenters.
* 1829 April 13 - British Parliament granted Catholic Emancipation in the spirit of religious toleration;
* 1900 Robert G. Ingersoll publishes his plea for religious liberty.[12]
* 1948 December 10 The United Nations General Assembly issues the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 18 declares that everyone has the right to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, and to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.[12]
* 1965 December 7 The Roman Catholic Church Vatican II Council issues the decree Dignitatis Humanae (Religious Freedom) that states that all people must have the right to religious freedom.[13]
* 1986 October 7 The first World Day of Prayer for Peace is held in Assisi when representatives of one hundred and twenty different religions came together for prayer to their God or gods. [14]
* 1988 April 29 - in the spirit of Glasnost, Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev promised increased religious toleration.[15]
In a country with a state religion, toleration means that the government permits religious practices of other sects besides the state religion, and does not persecute believers in other faiths. Historically, toleration has been a contentious issue within many religions as well as between one religion and another. At issue is not merely whether other faiths should be permitted, but also whether a ruler who is a believer may practice or permit tolerance. In the Middle Ages, toleration of Judaism was a contentious issue throughout Christendom. Today, there are concerns about toleration of Christianity in Islamic states (see also dhimmi).
Proselytism can be a contentious issue; it can be regarded as an offence against the validity of others' religions, or as an expression of one's own faith.
[edit] The element of objection
For individuals, religious toleration generally means an attitude of acceptance towards other people's religions. It does not mean that one views other religions as equally true; merely that others have the right to hold and practice their beliefs. This element of objection is important. People, who take these matters seriously, often experience distress when they are confronted with religious beliefs that they regard as idolatrous, superstitious, heretical or schismatic. Even in the western world, this is not only a historic issue, as in the Christian debate on persecution and toleration.
Contemporary authors such as Sam Harris, Richard Dawkins, Christopher Hitchens and Daniel C. Dennett have all written about the potential social hazards of allowing religious beliefs to go unchallenged. In The End of Faith, Sam Harris notes that we are unwilling, as a society, to tolerate unjustified beliefs in, for example, architecture. He asserts that we should be similarly unwilling to tolerate unjustified beliefs about morality, spirituality, politics, and the origin of humanity. In his preface to The God Delusion, Richard Dawkins says, "If this book works as I intend, religious readers who open it will be atheists when they put it down."[1]
[edit] Civil and ecclesiastical tolerance
Generally, when people speak of religious tolerance, the mean civil tolerance - "the policy of the state towards religious dissent".[2] In contrast to this, ecclesiastical tolerance is concerned with the degree of diversity tolerated within a particular church.[3]
[edit] Timeline
* 539 BC, Cyrus the Great issues a declaration of religious freedom; the first known recorded history of religious tolerance.[4]
* 364-332 BC, Ashoka the Great declares religious freedom in the Edicts of Ashoka
* 311 AD, The Roman Emperor Galerius issues a general edict of toleration in his own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine.[5]
* 313, The Edict of Milan issued by the Emperors Constantine I and Licinius proclaiming religious toleration in the Roman Empire.[6]
* 622, Muhammad declares religious freedom in the Constitution of Medina
* 1190, Genghis Khan composes his code of law, the Yassa, in which there is religious freedom for all who were under his rule.[citation needed]
* 1554, Castellio writes the pamphlet "De haereticis, an sint persequendi" (Whether heretics should be persecuted), the first modern appeal for toleration.[7]
* 1571 January 11 - Maximilian II declares religious toleration towards the nobles of Lower Austria, their families and workers;[8]
* 1573 January 28 - Warsaw Confederation granting religious toleration.[9]
* 1598 April 13 - King Henry IV of France issued the Edict of Nantes, allowing religious toleration of the Huguenots.[10]
* 1609 July 6 - Rudolph II grants religious toleration in Bohemia.[11]
* 1657 April 20 - New Amsterdam granted religious toleration to Jews;[citation needed]
* 1689, English Act of Toleration passed, granting toleration to Protestant dissenters.
* 1829 April 13 - British Parliament granted Catholic Emancipation in the spirit of religious toleration;
* 1900 Robert G. Ingersoll publishes his plea for religious liberty.[12]
* 1948 December 10 The United Nations General Assembly issues the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 18 declares that everyone has the right to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, and to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.[12]
* 1965 December 7 The Roman Catholic Church Vatican II Council issues the decree Dignitatis Humanae (Religious Freedom) that states that all people must have the right to religious freedom.[13]
* 1986 October 7 The first World Day of Prayer for Peace is held in Assisi when representatives of one hundred and twenty different religions came together for prayer to their God or gods. [14]
* 1988 April 29 - in the spirit of Glasnost, Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev promised increased religious toleration.[15]
Mempertanyakan Toleransi Beragama
Oleh Stevanus Subagijo
http://www.mirifica.net/artDetail.php?aid=3019
19 Juni 2006 09:16
Konflik antarumat beragama di Indonesia sangat potensial menjadi pemecah bangsa. Untuk itulah di negeri yang majemuk ini, penting memperbaharui terus-menerus ihwal toleransi beragama. Tujuannya, agar umat beragama bisa duduk bersanding dengan damai, tanpa curiga. Dengan catatan, masing-masing umat demi toleransi tidak kehilangan identitas agamanya.
Kekerasan antarumat beragama, telah menjadi semacam "religiositas baru" yang menghalalkan segala cara (kekerasan demi kebenaran). Menguatnya iman destruktif yang dijalankan pemeluk agama dan atas nama agama, menjadi "legitimasi Tuhan", khususnya dalam perkembangan eksklusivisme agamanya yang meruyak belakangan ini. Kita tidak dapat memungkiri, ditengah kampanye inklusivisme agama yang jauh dari fobia akan iman yang berbeda, sebaliknya "lintas iman", eksklusivisme justru menguat secara tak terkendali.
Jebakan Toleransi?
Kesalahan pertama, dalam memandang toleransi sebagai jimat kemajemukan keberagamaan terletak pada pandangan sempit bahwa semua agama itu sama. Dalam kenyataannya, agama mempunyai perbedaan besar dalam kepercayaan yang dianut dan dalam praktek religinya. Dengan mengatakan semua agama itu sama, terjadi keengganan mendiskusikan perbedaan-perbedaan yang justru menonjol pada setiap agama. Bahkan disinyalir, perbedaan-perbedaan dipendam suatu waktu menjadi titik konflik antaragama.
Jebakan toleransi kedua, kita mengalami justifikasi agama, bahwa seluruh bentuk kepercayaan agama mempunyai (klaim) kebenaran yang sama dan seimbang tanpa boleh dipertentangkan lagi. Kebanyakan umat beragama percaya bahwa kepercayaan mereka sungguh benar. Pada titik ini, sulit bahkan mustahil mengadakan kritik ke dalam agama akan kemungkinan-kemungkinan kesalahan yang dibawa oleh berbagai aspek dalam kepercayaannya itu. Padahal, kemungkinan suatu masa the darkness of religion bisa saja terjadi dan itu didukung oleh penafsiran yang keliru atas kepercayaan agama. Seperti misalnya nafsu perang agama sebagai refleksi dari tuntutan zaman yang mengharuskannya.
Ketiga, dengan memuja toleransi beragama sebagai sesuatu yang kabur, sebetulnya kita sedang terjebak dalam konflik antaragama untuk kedua kalinya. Oleh jargon toleransilah, kita percaya bahwa seluruh iman atas agama-agama selalu menguntungkan dan jauh dari keburukan bagi masyarakatnya. Siapa berani bilang bahwa pengajaran suatu agama ini buruk bagi masyarakat? Toleransi pula yang memenjarakan kita, sehingga kita tidak berani dan tidak jujur dalam mengevaluasi iman kita.
Bahwa fakta-fakta kekerasaan agama selalu dikatakan disebabkan oleh sesuatu diluar agama, sering kita dengar seperti, kemiskinan ekonomi, ketidakadilan sosial, politisasi agama, provokator agama dan sebagainya. Kita tidak berani masuk ke daerah tabu apakah iman agama juga menyokong terhadap kekerasaan, rasisme, perbedaan gender, intoleransi dan sebagainya?
Keempat, toleransi beragama pula yang mengkondisikan pemeluk agama untuk tidak berani mengkritik praktek kepercayaan agamanya, apalagi praktek kepercayaan agama lain. Padahal kritik kepada agama yang dianut, merupakan bagian pendewasan agama itu. Sedangkan kritik kepada agama lain merupakan jalan masuk kepada toleransi beragama yang sejati dan lugas. Akan lebih baik toleransi agama berjalan dengan trasparan, jujur dan langsung pada ganjalan-ganjalan hubungan antaragama. Di zaman Orba kita dihantui tuduhan subversi jika mengutak-atik SARA.
Kelima, akibat lanjutannya, pemeluk agama tidak berani "mempertanyakan (kebenaran) iman kepercayaannya". Bahwa dengan mengimani suatu agama, maka iman itu sudah final, ya dan amin. Dengan tidak berani bergulat dengan kebenaran imannya, seorang pemeluk agama tidak mungkin lagi diharapkan untuk toleransi dengan agama lain. Lebih jauh lagi tidak mungkin ia bergulat atas iman agama lain. Praktek kehidupan lintas iman tidak mungkin ia tempuh. Ia akan terkungkung secara sempit dalam kebenarannya semata. Disini, ia bukan berarti harus mengakui kebenaran orang lain. Pemeluk agama tetap harus mutlak, yakin akan kebenaran imannya sekaligus mengakui realita bahwa ada kebenaran agama lain yang dianut sesamanya dengan tanpa ia harus ikut meyakininya, tetapi ia perlu menghormatinya dan demikian pula sebaliknya yang ia harapkan dari orang lain atas agamanya.
Keenam, tuntutan toleransi beragama sering pula diartikan secara ekstrem dengan tidak mempedulikan cita-cita iman kepercayaannya sendiri. Ia mempercayai Tuhan dan agama, tetapi oleh jargon toleransi yang keliru ia "meniadakan" dan tidak memperdulikan apa yang dianutnya. Atau sebaliknya ia berusaha untuk mengimani seluruh kepercayaan agama-agama (sinkretis) sebagai bentuk kompromi rohani, padahal merupakan toleransi yang salah.
Tiga Pilar
Roh toleransi agama yang benar mempunyai tiga pilar utama, yakni kebutuhan kerendahhatian untuk jalan bersama antarpemeluk agama, pencarian "jalan yang benar" bersama antaragama, evaluasi bersama antaragama yang berbeda. Masalah terpenting dari toleransi beragama bukan pada persoalan bagaimana kita harus bersikap toleran dalam beragama, tetapi lebih pada mengapa kita harus tersinggung dan marah jika agama kita dihina oleh pemeluk agama lain. Inilah akar terdalam mengapa kedok toleransi beragama dari kurun ke kurun tetap menyisakan kekerasan antaragama.
Toleransi hanya topeng, ketika umat agama sebenarnya gagal untuk menjadi umat yang dewasa. Toleransi dengan demikian diyakini baik sebatas tujuan kerdilnya yakni agar umat beragama menahan emosi dalam kemungkinan konflik beragama. Ini berarti sama saja bahwa sebelum toleransi diajarkan kepada penganut agama, sikap dasar dari penganut agama sebenarnya sudah intoleran. Dengan kata lain, oke kita toleran tetapi awas kalau engkau melanggar rambu-rambu toleransi tersebut. Inilah yang memicu terjadinya kekerasan antaragama.
Apapun istilahnya, agar kekerasan antaragama dapat hilang diupayakan agar penjelajahan iman dan agama yang berbeda-beda dapat diterima bersama di antara pemeluk-pemeluknya. Toleransi masih menyisakan jarak religius yang dibentengi dengan kawat berduri. Penerimaan bersama antariman, diantara pemeluk agama berbeda sebaliknya membongkar kawat berduri yang bernama toleransi tersebut. Dari memahami agama sendiri yang eksklusif di satu sisi diubah menjadi memahami agama-agama secara inklusif dan memilih satu bagi dirinya secara eksklusif.
Dengan meletakkan kebersamaan iman, kita tidak perlu mengkampanyekan toleransi. Karena tanpanyapun, toleransi agama sebagaimana dimaknai secara awam -menghormati agama yang berbeda- sudah terjadi bahkan lebih dari itu ia tidak didasarkan pada rambu-rambu ketersinggungan dengan kawat berduri agama yang siap meletuskan emosi. Lebih dari itu, ia didasari oleh kebebasan memilih agama, bahkan memperbaharui imannya secara total jika ia merasa perlu. Ia didasari oleh kelugasannya untuk berganti iman dan bukan didasari dengan sikap mempertahankan secara mati-matian baju iman yang selama ini dipercayai.
Apa yang diperlukan dengan begitu bukan toleransi dalam hubungan antaragama, tetapi evaluasi pertanggungjawaban atas agama yang dipeluknya. Toleransi sebenarnya sudah terbentuk dengan sendirinya ketika seorang pemeluk agama bertanggung jawab bukan hanya pada tuntutan iman percayanya saja tetapi juga dalam praktik keberagamaannya secara sosial.
Penulis adalah Peneliti pada Center for National Urgency Studies, Jakarta
SUARA PEMBARUAN DAILY -- Sabtu, 17 Juni 2006
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